Tag Archives: Racism

May 13, 2017 · 6:27 pm

Why is the Police Culture a serious obstacle to reform?

Police Culture is defined as a set of beliefs and values shared within the police force along with the patterns that associate within the force, such as respect and comradeship. Organisational culture is the common type of culture which is defined by writers like Schein (1985: 6 cited in Newburn 2003: 197) and is understood that the beliefs, values and behaviour within the force are unconsciously taken for granted . Kier (1999:26 cited in Newburn 2003: 197) noted that organisational cultures have a vital influence on how police officers react to certain things and their relationships towards their colleagues on the aspects regards of gender, race and religion. Gender quality is one of the most influential features highlighted within the police and organisational cultures (Morgan 1992 cited in Newburn 2003: 197). Gregory and Lees (1999: 50 cited in Newburn 2003: 197) highlighted an example of gendered quality within the police force like male bonding within policing. They believed that male bonding is essential when it comes to dealing with dangerous situations. Nonetheless, Kier (1999: 27 cited in Newburn 2003: 197) also argued that male bonding involves one common value shared among them is the machismo value.

Reiner (2000: 87 cited in Newburn 2003) noted that cop culture, a set of patterns of understandings with the aims of aiding officers to adjust to the tensions when it comes to tackling issues which are confronting to the police. He also emphasises (2000: 90 cited in Newburn 2003: 199 -200) that isolation, risk – taking, authority and pragmatism are all the central building blocks of cop culture. Punch (1985: 187 cited in Newburn 2003: 198) criticised that the strain and anxiety among the police were embellished by olice officers and police research who become hypnotised by the police world and assigned to develop behaviour patterns rather than accepting the similarities of other occupations. For example, Winslow 1998 and Kier 1999 (Newburn 2003: 198) that cop culture concentrates and associates with junior police officers in the front – line policing rather than middle, senior managers and even superintendents.

The media play a partial influence on police culture where they are portrayed as crime fighters who carry out numerous tasks from driving fast in patrol cars to raiding homes of criminal who believed to possess illegal drugs (Newburn 2003: 200). It can be criticised that police officers portray differently from what they are seen from the TV show such as the Bill. In reality, police officers are viewed as crime fighters and more importantly in fact, as peace keepers who maintain social order and deal with case files and paper work which is suggested by Michael Banton (1964 cited in Newburn 2003: 201 – 2) who carried out the first study on British policing. However, Ericson and Haggerty (1997: 299 cited in Newburn 2003: 201) who observed the Canadian police officers, learnt that police officers make complaints about doing paper instead of pursuing crime like catching and apprehending criminals.

Newburn (2003: 202 – 3) stressed that new police recruits are hastened to assimilate to the norms and values within the police force and have to learn the tricks of the trade in order to be not only physically strong, but emotionally as well as policing is considered to be dangerous and distressing when dealing with homicide, fatal assaults to breaking up pub fights and affray. Fielding (1988: 54 cited in Newburn 2003: 203) sees that police training provides the new recruits the tools and practice in fostering occupational cultures within the police. In contrast, culture values are originated from expressing ideas among the police and the back chats made among colleagues and conversations made in corridors and staff changing rooms. Training also has the opportunity to hypodermic inject a dose of police reality with the intention to vaccinate the naive and deluded minds of new recruits so they learn that policing is not what they see on fictional TV shows. The most essential tradition for new recruits is the progression from self – sufficiency to becoming a productive member of the team where aims and values are shared (Fielding 1988: 189 cited in Newburn 2003:203).

It is believed that there were various explanations that advocate the debate among cultural and structural within policing especially the uses of discretion. From a political lens, Jerome Skolnick (1966: ch3 cited in Maguire, Morgan & Reiner 2007: 918) noted from his classic formulation that the police in liberal democracy are faced with a problem which involves them working under pressure in order to succeed within the form of law enforcement, but they were restricted from the methods they can use during the discretion process. He categorized three views of cop culture: suspiciousness, internal solidarity and conservatism.

Suspiciousness transpires from the pressure among the police to achieve results by catching and seizing criminals and the fear which comes with it. It can be criticised that suspiciousness makes the police liable to operate with prejudiced stereotypical portrayals of villains and deviants.  Internal solidarity bonds with social isolation. Solidarity is all about colleagues facing fear and life – threatening situations together. In contrast, social isolation is the creation of arranged aspects of work, such as the shift system and people’s caution towards interacting with authority figures. However, isolation could magnify the stereotypical portrayals of villains in terms of race, class; gender and class whereas, solidarity could be used as a tool to prevent professional misconduct. Conservatism from a moral and social angle is that police function is seen as the heart of representing and in defending authority and are in duty of the protecting and preserving law and order. In some cases, police are likely to have an option or opinions that are influenced by the narratives which is deemed influential. One example, they find themselves sympathetic and empathetic with deviants especially, women who are apprehended for theft or deviants with mental health disorders and criminals that come from broken environments. Political conservatism is a less common element of police culture. Robert Reiner (2000: 191 – 4 cited in Maguire, Morgan & Reiner 2007: 918) noted that police officers are liable to political right despite of having working class values.

Structural explanations about police culture highlight the importance of beliefs and values within the police force which are relevant in explaining their customs. These values and beliefs are converted into actions in distinct circumstances. For instance, Waddington (1996b cited in Maguire, Morgan & Reiner 2007: 920) argues that police officers who exhibit signs of racial discrimination are restricted from displaying racist views within the work place. Police work is structured by the authorisation and administration of police. The modern police are largely prepared for duty in the public sphere. In contrast, police practice is shaped by the legal and social institution of privacy outlined by characteristics of class, race and gender.

Evidence are argued to vindicate why police culture is considered a serious obstacle to be reformed. Many writers and researchers were challenged by debates that question if there is likelihood that police culture can be changed into a more positive form as it is deemed to be overwhelmingly negative due to sensitive matters within race and gender. One of the writers included in this debate is James .Q. Wilson (1968: 4 cited in Newburn 2003) who concluded after carrying out a study on American policing, that the uses of force was placed on behaviour patterns among police officers. .Janet Chan (1997: 92-3 cited in Newburn 2003: 219) argues that police cultures are susceptible to external pressure and anxiety. She (1996, 1997 cited in Newburn 2003: 219 – 20) noted from an encouraging study which arouse debates about the change of police culture, learnt that corruption within the police department in New South Wales, Australia was accepted. However, it had been changed as the police department were obliged to concede and implement an anti – corruption strategy; a version of New York’s zero tolerance strategy which would prevent these mistakes from happening again.

Gender is suggested to be an issue which sends a wave of concern among many writers, particularly those with feminist views particularly views on radical feminism form debates to vindicate whether there are serious matters relating to gender within the policing, such as bullying, sexual harassment and discrimination. It has been noted (Heidensohn cited in Newburn 2003: 557) that most of the police recruits were  male by seventy – five years since the Metropolitan police was established in 1829 by the Police Acts. Nevertheless, the transformation between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries saw the launch of policewomen’s movement by those who advocated the employment opportunities for women within the police force.

Dorothy Schulz (1995 cited in Newburn 2003: 560) noted that Alice Stebbins – Wells was appointed as the first female police officer in 1910 by the Los Angeles Police Department after the policewomen’s movement. Few renowned writers like Margaret Damer Dawson, Mary Allen and Nina Boyle who have been linked with first wave feminism pushed for voluntary policewomen to patrol the streets in Britain. Frances Heidensohn (cited in Newburn 2003: 561) noted that women’s position within the police was persisted to be limited until the end of the Second World War. They were assigned and trained to carry out tasks, from escorting female prisoners to dealing female victims of crime especially victims of rape. The acceptance and legislation of the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 was considered a stepping stone to vital changes of women’s roles within policing. It can be suggested that feminist writers are from the middle and upper classes and considered to be well educated.

Even though it can be suggested that women who pursue careers within policing sent a wave of rebellion against society’s stereotypical roles of women, as arguably, women are prone to victimisation by patriarchal influences within policing. Martin (1980) carried out the first study of policing in Washington DC in attempt find out how women adapt to occupational culture, especially cultures that are male- dominated where women are viewed as sex objects. Female police officers are  argued to be seen as a “threat” to the male macho chauvinistic values held in policing especially if they were promoted to higher hierarchal positions. Radical feminists could argue that women are subjected to sexual bullying which comes in minor forms, such as sexual comments and name – calling to most serious forms like rape although it can be suggested that rape is rarely committed. Disturbingly, it can be implicated that female officers are often felt they were bullied, blackmailed or bribed into giving sexual favours to male chief constables disturbed by the anxiety of losing their promotion or career altogether.

It is suggested that subcultures are formed among female police officers however, it has been noted by Marissa Silvestri (2000, 2003 cited in Newburn 2003: 568) who emphasised numerous critical outlooks of senior policewomen and discovered that they felt isolated within their hierarchal positions. Cases of sexual discrimination and harassment against women police officers were published in newspapers, such as the case of Dee Mazurkiewicz, who became the second policewoman turned detective constable to win a sexual harassment case against Thames Valley Police, claimed that her career was jeopardized by being nicknamed “Massive Cleavage” and was accussed of exposing her breasts during suspect interrogation (The independent 11th November 1997).

Arguably, one of the reasons why police culture is seen as negative is how police respond to crimes, such as domestic violence, physical and sexual abuse of children and crimes of sexual nature against women. It can be suggested that women are more sympathetic when dealing these sensitive issues than men as they can take a maternal and nurturing approach to dealing with victims’ emotions and seem to be matured . Jones (et al 1994 cited in Newburn 2003: 569) noted after researching four provincial on new responses towards crimes committed against women and children, such as the creation rape and sex assault examination suites and officers to specialise in child protection. However, the case of Victoria Climbe, an eight year old girl who was murdered at the hands of her mother and boyfriend triggered Lord Laming (2003: 296, 309 cited in Newburn 2003: 569) to observe and learnt the training that the police officers who were involved in this case was inadequate although the front – line officers were women.

Race is suggested to be the core issue which raised controversy and is concentrated more than gender historically. Research vindicate that ethnic minorities are subjected to discrimination as victims and employees within policing. Since the 1960s, it can be argued that ethnic minorities are represented in sports, business, politics, the civil service and medicine and none of them are represented in policing. Researches vindicate that police assess and categorise people of their ethnic origin. For example, it had been noted (Cain 1973, Graef 1989: 131 cited in Newburn 2003: 529) that studies reveal that Asians were classified as clever liars, deceptors fraudsters and potential illegal immigrants whereas in contrast Graef (1989, Reiner 1991 cited in Newburn 2003: 529) noted that black people are suggested to be trouble – makers, sexual deviants, highly aggressive, non – intelligent and participate mainly in violent crime and drug abuse.

Numerous researches illustrated that Black and Asian police officers were subjected to racial discrimination by their white counterparts. An overwhelming interview of ethnic minority police officers by Holdaway (1993 cited in Newburn 2003: 540) revealed that racist remarks and jokes were normally “a way of life” among police conservations which are carried out in canteens or changing rooms. It had been noted (Smith and Gray 1985; Holdaway 1983 cited in Maguire, Morgan & Reiner 2007: 436) from qualitative research conducted on police culture revealed racial derogatory words, such as ‘Paki’ ‘Nigger’ and ‘Coon were commonly used and accepted in police conversations. The Journal of Policing and Reducing Crime contained research which suggested that Black and Asian officers were slower than their white counterparts in obtaining promotion (1999: vi) It was also believed that ethnic minority graduates are more likely to have their applications withdrawn or rejected than their white counterparts. It can be argued that racism could have an immediate effect on career prospectus among Black, Asian and Ethnic minority officers. It had been noted (Hunte 1966 cited in Newburn 2003: 530) that oppressive policing could be originated to the 1960s where a report to the West Indian Standing Council illustrate the police participate in practices like ‘nigger – hunting’.

It can be argued that ethnic minorities and black people in particular, display pessimistic attitudes towards police officers. It had been noted (Gordon 1984 cited in Newburn 2003: 530) immigration was emphasised as a controversial debate which determined the experiences of policing among ethnic minorities where police officers were granted the powers by The Immigration Act of 1971 to apprehend and question those who were alleged to immigrate to the country illegally or overstaying their terms of entry and would be stopped and searched.

The brutal assault of Rodney King, an African – American by Police Officers in Los Angeles after being stopped for drunk – driving in March 1993 is argued to be proved as evidence that police abuse their powers of arrest and suggested that this and many cases of police brutality encourage or influence ethnic minorities to view the police as “racist”. Racially – motivated harassment among ethnic minority persisted until the British government and the police in 1981 accepted the problem and begin to record it (Home Office 1981 Bowling 1999). Bowling (1999 cited in Newburn 2003: 540) who carried out a study in East London, noted that ethnic minorities who experienced racist abuse were unhappy with the way the police respond to dealing these crimes and felt the police could have done better and felt the police did not take these crimes seriously. However, some compromised with how racist abuse was dealt with by the police and less than one – third of the people interviewed were satisfied. Stephen Lawrence, a black youth who was murdered in a racially – motivated and unprovoked attack triggered Sir William Macpherson to carry out a report of the police response to the murder, and discovered there was an indication of institutional racism. In his 10 year review report, it been noted that Doreen Lawrence, the mother of the Mr Lawrence felt that black families were treated differently from white families. She also believed that institution racism exist in some areas of the police force. Dwayne Brooks, a friend of Mr Lawrence recommends that racial allegations made by members of the public against officers should be considerably practiced with caution and taken more seriously. The report concluded that black people are persisted to be overrepresented in the National DNA Database and in the criminal justice system. They (Black people) are remained disproportionately represented in stop and search statistics. The report also recommended the police must concentrate on confronting issues of racist discrimination within the workforce.

On the whole, it is clear to be obvious that police culture is a serious obstacle to be reformed from the evidence mentioned in this essay. This essay emphasises that majority of police officers were white middle class males with machismo values. Police Officers are argued to have indirect unconscious disturbing views of racism and sexism in policing and the police force is argued to be a breeding ground for corruption which may in turn influence policing tackles seriousness of hate crimes experienced by Black Asians and Ethnic minorities, and members of the Lesbian Gay Bisexual and Transgender communities along with cases of domestic and sexual violence and child abuse. The media obviously, plays a manipulative influence on police culture which deludes our minds towards policing rather realities of behind the scenes. It is clear that institutional racism continues to exist in many forms along with gender discrimination in policing especially in dealing bullying in the workplace. However, writers should be criticized for ignoring the issues of sexuality and religion in policing which is blinded by race and gender. This essay could recommend that more training should be provided within the police force to become more sensitive in dealing with victims of male rape, hate crimes and domestic violence especially in ethnic minorities. It can be recommended that strategies should be implemented to tackle languages barriers within ethnic minority communities and  should continue to tackle indirect forms of discrimination in the private and public sphere of policing.

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Cain, M (1973) Society and the Policeman’s Role. London: Routledge.

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Chan, J (1997) Changing Police Culture: Policing in a Multicultural Society, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

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Kier, E (1999) ‘Discrimination and military cohesion: an organisation perspective’, in M. Fansod Katzenstein and J. Reppy (eds) Beyond Zero Tolerance: Discrimination in Military Culture. Lanham MD: Rowman & Littlefield 25 – 52.

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Internet site (s)

http://www.independent.co.uk/news/second-policewoman-wins-case-against-force-1293328.html)
Report(s)

The Macpherson Report – Ten Years On (2009) HoC: Home Affairs Committee: London.

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June 7, 2013 · 12:50 am

How can the impact of poverty be understood in contemporary society?

poverty729-620x349When the word poverty is mentioned, we are captivated by an image of a child no younger than seven wandering the dusty wide streets of a third world country. The feelings of desperation, hunger, sadness, loneliness and vulnerability through his swollen tearful eyes after an hours’ search for a taste of satisfaction soften our hearts melting with sorrow, helplessness and compassion. A picture of his skeletal body pressing onto his flesh mounted on every charity leaflet displayed by street fundraisers we are approached by in our local high streets or a homeless man at the street corner only be heard by the cardboard held by his hands reading: Homeless and Hungry Please help with an exclamation mark as he bows his head down with his eyes peering down at the ground.

Tower block of flats with stairwells overpowered by heavy stench of  urine littered with dirty needles, debris of dust, empty food packets, dried on newspapers and magazine strips. A row of houses with windows patched with wood and walls patterned by graffiti, showing threats, offensive slurs and hatred presumably written by domineering and bullying feral minded youths with the routine of getting drunk on cheap alcohol purchased from shops on what their ignorant dictionary refer as “The Paki Shop”  a typical derogatory banter shared between among feral subcultures, an obvious reaction after being intoxicated by the cheap booze, brought with their “free money” from the government and the result of wave of immigration for South Asia in the 1960s. Their vocabularies are largely spat out with a tirade of profanity and their only reputation is to be thugs and anti – social menaces. This obviously captures our mind with resentment and awareness about the consequences of what poverty can bring, hostility and resentment towards those are from middle and upper class backgrounds.

Poverty is a major social issue along with racism, ageism, social exclusion and sexism. Although poverty is acknowledged and there are certain policies with the aim to neutralise  its high numbers, it continues to be a major issue worldwide. Poverty is not difficult to define as comes in two forms. Absolute poverty,  according to Rowntree (1890’s) is to have insufficient funds for their human rights. In clarity, the amount of income a person needs to pay rent, for food and clothing. Being poor also defines not having the materialistic needs to be accepted within the social norms of society in which Townsend (1970’s) defines as relative poverty. Relative poverty is obviously used to explain poverty in western societies where computers and mobile phones are used to be seen as luxuries in the past. Today, it’s becoming a norm for people to own them. If they do not have any of those items, they may be classified as poor and could make them feel excluded from society.

Functionalists like Davis and Moore (1967) and Parsons (1951) see inequality as unavoidable and is essential for society to create social cohesion. In comparison to other social groups, those who from below the poverty-stricken backgrounds remain stuck especially those as their environment lack opportunities that help them to escape poverty, such as apprenticeships, education and work training programmes. Thus, can be a breeding ground for anti-social behaviour caused by the feelings of frustration among subcultures that live there. Poverty can be seen as an incentive to motivate people, especially those who live poverty-stricken towns and neighbourhoods to find ways to better their chances to leave the depressing position behind by taking advantage of education and government related employment programmes. However, they are motivated by financial rewards rather than enrolling on programmes that aims to help them build their self esteem and self confidence.

Marxists thinkers like Westgaard and Resler (1976) and Kincaid (1979) argue that the bourgeoisie use poverty as an aid to help them meet their own selfish interest by exploiting the feelings of powerlessness and frustration held in the proletarians . Consequently, inequalities are created and eventually, lead to conflict and resentment among the proletarians towards the bourgeoisie . The strength of this explanation is that it highlights the concentration of wealth in the capitalist market and explains the ruling class uses the welfare state as a weapon to prevent the poor from rebelling against the capitalist system. Another criticism of the Marxist lens is it ignores the positives inequalities may bring. For example, it will give the poor and those from working class backgrounds the motivation and persistence to succeed and additionally, ameliorate their levels in resilience and coping skills.

Weberian thinkers like Townsend (1970) believe that inequalities are a result of the demands from the labour market and it is strongly influenced by characteristics, such as race, gender, age and level of education. This explanation highlights some points that people can be blamed for causing poverty especially concern revolve around race and gender. They (Weberians) also believe that people are enslaved in the poverty trap because they lack the power to force other social groups to increase their level of reward. However, Weberian thinkers can be criticised for ignoring the causes of poverty in individuals, such as discrimination in race, age, disability and socio-economic backgrounds. This (Weberian) approach is seen as  more sensitive to these issues of stratification and inequalities and do not see inequality as the cause of poverty. They see that inequalities focus on power and demands from the labour market. Weberians concurs  with the Marxists that inequality is unavoidable in the capitalist system. However, they do not mean that poverty itself is unavoidable. Inequalities can be reduced through progressive taxation, which means that the more money people earn, the more taxes they pay and suggest that relative poverty should be eliminated. This they believe could neutralise the financial burdens endured by those who are from lower and working class backgrounds.

The New Right believe capitalist economies play a key role in poverty  because businesses need to gain more profits by making sure that public spending are kept short. They (New Right) also believe the welfare state is to blame for causing poverty indirectly by forcing entrepreneurs to make higher tax payments. Consequently,  job opportunities are not created. They  feel the welfare state is responsible for encouraging people to be more interested in claiming benefits, which creates fatalistic attitudes, believing they are better off living on handouts rather than working for a minimum wage as they are put off by the possiblity of rejection from potential employers and a vicious no win situation. However, a criticism of the New Right is that poverty would increase if the welfare state was eradicated, thus exacerbating the levels of mixed emotions among those who are already trapped. They will unable to afford a healthy diet, leaving them susceptible to common illnesses, which could leave them absent from the labour market. This means, they won’t be receive a regular income to cover the basic needs for survival.

Women are more likely to suffer from poverty than men because of discrimination and demands of their stereotypical roles within the patriarchal society. Since the feminist’s movement in the 1960s, which severed ties with patriarchy, women are now striving for education and careers. However, women are more likely to gain part – time and menial jobs and this could have an impact on their pensions in later life. Women tend to dominate single parent families than men, making their chances of obtaining employment more challenging because of childcare duties. As a result, become more dependent on the state, leaving them sinking into a vicious circle. Feminists, especially those with radical views can argue the welfare state discourages women from seeking employment and as welfare state symbolises patriarchal control and feel threatened to be sanctioned if they work. Glendinning and Millar (1994) stressed that women may be restricted of access to other types of benefits and only 60% of women are entitled for maternity leave.

Women who are in the poverty trap are likely to exploit the welfare state by producing more babies and could lose their benefits if they obtain employment which agrees with Pollak (1961) who argue that women take advantage of their stereotypical roles. This can be seen as a criticism ignored by feminist thinkers additionally, the subject of prostitution, where women will engage in this risky activity to achieve the basic needs for survival especially those with children. This would result them to abuse particularly rape by their pimps and clients if they refuse to give them their services, in fear of having unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. This would eventually leave them permanently incarcerated in the poverty trap.

Neera Sharma, a Policy Officer from Barnados (BBC News) says that poverty can impact a child’s personal, social and educational development. Lack of a healthy diet, hygiene and unconditional love play a part in child poverty. The cycle of deprivation by Rutter and Madge (1976) illustrates on how poverty can have an effect on people. For example, a child be born into poverty, grows up in a council estate and gains the lower class status. They may suffer from health problems because of their poor diet and this would affect their education performance and consequently, drop outwith no qualifications and difficulties of holding down a job and the cycle persists into adulthood. This could provoke them to engage in criminal activities to achieve the basic, materialistic or both needs . Therefore, it would make it difficult for them obtain employment, mirroring the cycle of deprivation. Eventually this cycle can be passed on from generation to generation. This can influence them and adopt this as a way of life manifest the fatalistic attitudes and refuse opportunities in employment and education.

People with disabilities are at risk of  poverty their  able – bodied counterparts as their physical health restricts them from seeking employment and if they do obtain employment, it would be low skilled and low paid. Oppenheim and Harker (1996) estimated that 47% of disabled were living in poverty in the 1980s. They also argue that higher rates of poverty among disabled people were partly due to social exclusion and discrimination because of the hostile attitudes held in the minds of the able-bodied and the stigma held in mainstream society, where they are labelled as “abnormal”. Alcock (1997) points out that disabled people are more likely to suffer from social exclusion and material poverty than able-bodied, thus increasing levels of depression and low self-esteem.

Disabled people have higher spending costs on items such as heating, adaptable aids, transport and heating than most people. 46% of disabled people lived in the poorest conditions in 1985 and reduced down to 38% in 1996 and 1997. The disability living allowance is designed to prevent financial hardships in disabled people and provided incentives, such as skills training and work preparation enabling them to seek employment. However, it can be criticised for ignoring that people can overcome their overcome with the right support and help from charities and governmental programmes specialising in disabilities. Another criticism of disability as it tends to concentrate on physical immobility and not those who are suffer specific learning disabilities, such as Dyslexia, ADHD, Dyspraxia and Asperger’s Syndrome. Thirdly, mental health is ignored as those who live with conditions particularly, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia are prone to prejudice and discrimination as the hostility held in society unconsciously views  them “crazy” or “mentally abnormal”. Thus excerabates their chances of entering the labour market and integrate to mainstream society.

Members from Black and Ethnic minority backgrounds are twice at risk of experiencing poverty than their white counterparts. Racial discrimination is obviously seen as the core root of poverty and unemployment. Institutional racism in education is a major problem in contemporary society as teachers hold subconscious negative racial stereotypes and lack understanding in cultural diversity and direction in schools, which result in low education attainment and poor academic performance within black and ethnic minoritity groups, provoking them to drop out. This eventually leads to a restriction of job opportunities and therefore, subject them to be permanently trapped in the cycle of deprivation. Thus, engage in criminal activities, such as drug dealing, theft, fraud and robberies against their white counterparts to express deep-rooted feelings of resentment.

Scott and Fulcher (1999) note that two – thirds of Pakistani and Bangladeshi families are in the bottom fifth of the income distribution in Britain. He also argues that ethnic minorities can experience problems with the benefits system as they receive a fewer amount benefits than their white counterparts and they feel the welfare state does not respond to cultural or family issues  e.g. Afro – Caribbeans are more likely to face poverty because they have higher numbers of single parenthood and treatment by staff at their local job centre. Ethnic groups are more like to be socially excluded due to of racism and language barriers if English is not their first language. Alcock (1997) notes that poor housing; ill-health and lack of education could be linked to financial inequality in the Black and Ethnic minorities, making it obvious that strong levels of racist attitudes held in hegemonic institutions, which can back up argument  causes of poverty within the black  and ethnic communities. Alcock can be criticised for ignoring the link between racial hostility and poverty in black and ethnic minorities especially held in institutions and towns that are predominately white.

Poverty continues to make a negative impact in contemporary society, through the theoretical lenses. Marxist thinkers resent the ruling class for the cause of poverty among the poor. However, the chances to rise above the poverty line lies in the self-belief and personal responsibility regardless of their characteristics. Unfortunately, enraged by the negative feelings experienced by poverty, some turn to crime, not knowing it would create a cycle of deprivation for their offsprings. Weberians made good points that people are to blame for their own poverty by refusing to take offers from the labor market and opportunities in education because of their fatalistic attitude. They also argue that poverty indicates the issue of power and status within the labour market along with inequalities. Functionalist thinkers argue poverty cannot be eradicated as it is needed to a certain degree to create social cohesion. Feminist thinkers feel that poverty reveal issues of sexism feeling the welfare state and benefit handouts favours the interest of patriarchy and women are seen as victims of  so-called “patriarchal welfare slavery”.

 

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Kincaid, J. (1979) ‘Poverty and the Welfare State’ in Irvine et al (ed.) (1979).

Parsons, T (1951) The Social System, The Free Press, New York.

Glendinning, C. and Millar, J. (1994) Women and Poverty in Britain: The 1990s, Harvester Wheatsheaf, Hemel Hempstead.

Pollak, O (1961) The Criminality of women A.S Barnes. University of Michigan

Oppenheim, C. and Harker, L. (1996) Poverty: Facts, 3rd edn, CPAG, London.

Rowntree, S. (1901) Poverty: A study of Town Life, Macmillan, London.

Townsend, P. (1970) ‘Measures and explanations of poverty in high and low-income countries in Townsend (ed.) (1970). (ed.) (1970) The Concept of Poverty, Heinemann, London.

Westergaard, J. and Resler, H. (1976) Class in a Capitalist Society, Penguin, Harmondsworth.

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June 3, 2013 · 8:01 pm

What is meant by race, ethnicity and racialisation and how does it impact migration?

Race is defined as a social construct rooted from the judgement of how we see ourselves, such as skin colour, hair type, facial features and other physical characteristics. Ethnicity is defined in sharing the same cultural values and norms, historical experiences, religious interests and geographical origins. It is underlined (Hall 1989 cited in Fulcher and Scott 2007: 200) that ethnicity derives from ancient experiences and events that highlights the problem of prejudice and discrimination, inevitably will embed in our minds and the minds of the next generation. Racialization is an approach where we are defined by race, country of origin and ethnic culture. Racism is suggested to be an example of racialization where one person from one racial background is treated differently than one person from another racial and ethnic background determined by knowledge, social hierarchical status and historical feuds, resembling the prejudice and discrimination experienced by those of ethnic minorities by members from the hegemonic superior society.

Three theories are used to help us concentrate on our understanding of race. The first theory is the  theory of race and citizenship that concentrates on how race can increase our chances to obtain citizenship and to our human rights as being denied the freedom and opportunity to vote, voice our opinions and access to health and education. This theory flashbacks to the African Americans’ endurance of slavery and the James Crow era seeing racial segregation between black and white communities, the colonization of British India aka the British Raj. The melting pot stems from the notion of assimilation where a migrant is expected to adopt the norms and values of their adopted homeland.

Lloyd Warner (1936 cited in Fulcher & Scott 2007: 203) argued the ethnic melting pot affected Eastern European Jews, Germans and Irish migrants who settle in US cities including New York, Chicago, Boston and Philadelphia. However, the ethnic melting pot failed to apply on black migrants as they were socially bruised and scarred by historical constraints of racial oppression and slavery. As a result, black migrants unconsciously find themselves to be at the bottom of racial hierarchy.  The second theory is the relationship between race and colonialism and it concentrates on methods of making one racial group inferior by a group which is superior (Cox 1948 cited in Fulcher & Scott 2007: 205).  One method that illustrate this theory is the application of science to hamper their spaces for economic and social progress through racial profiling. The third theory is racial discourse, where a set of ideas, beliefs and representation where we can be manipulated into identifying ourselves as British regardless of our racial and cultural differences.

Migrants from racial and ethnic minority backgrounds come to first world countries like USA and Britain in search for a better life and take advantage of the opportunities available which are often took for granted by inhabitants. Unfortunately, they found themselves hibernating in lower class neighbourhoods and obtaining low paid menial jobs. For example, a study on Chicago conducted by Lloyd Warner who concentrated on the race and citizenship theory in America’s Deep South (Drake and Cayton 1945) saw the rates of black migration was very high during the Great Migration period between 1916 to 1919, as motivated by the heavy demands of jobs in labour. African-Americans were encouraged to move to northern US cities such as Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia, Cleveland and New York with the intention to escape from the trauma of slavery and the James Crow era in the Deep South, only to find themselves living in “ghetto” communities  such as the New York’s Harlem district and the Chicago’s Black Metropolis, to find a sense of belonging, simultaneously felt they were bullied into living in these communities by white estate agencies who hold unconscious racist ideologies and hostilities towards them.

African-American migration was unique rooting from the era of slavery, that illustrates in the transatlantic triangle where they  were abducted from Africa only to be treated as property to be brought and exchanged between slaves owners to work in the Caribbean and North America through the use force and intimidation. Although slavery was legally abolished, the exclusion experienced by black people persisted and were maintained in the lower end of the social hierarchy although they were able to progress to middle class and gain academically orientated jobs (Fulcher & Scott 2007: 209 – 11).

Shelia Patterson (1963 cited in Fulcher & Scott 2007: 217) carried out a migration study in Brixton, a district in central Lambeth and learnt that migrants especially, African Caribbeans are likely to settle there and inform their fellow relatives and acquaintances to migrate there at any opportunity. Brixton also attracted many migrants because of the large quantity in accommodation. Populations in West Indian migrants increased from 5,000 to 10,000 by the early 1960s as it had been suggested they were motivated by  mass of job opportunities available to them (Fulcher & Scott 2007: 219). Nevertheless, there was a deprivation in employment opportunities between 1956 and 1959 and thus, unemployment rates in Brixton increased dramatically. There were competitions between white and black people and the main issue was housing. West Indian and African Caribbean buyers and tenants are argued to have more potential to be charged more than their white counterparts and more likely to have disputes with their landlords because of racial hostility and homelessness may occur (Fulcher & Scott 2007: 219).

African Carribeans are rumoured to suffer the worst in housing by living in crowded lodgings and other poor accommodations than their poor white counterparts. Some found themselves buying property, only run down houses to rent out to other West Indian migrants to prevent them from enduring same level of racial hostility and intimidation from their white landlords. It was the same for Sparkbrook, a district in Birmingham, where Pakistani migrants were rented accommodation by Pakistani landlords (Rex and Moore 1967 cited in Fulcher & Scott 2007: 219). It is believed (Zorbaugh 1929 cited in Fulcher & Scott 2007: 219) that both Sparkbrook and Brixton were seen as the zones of transition where the values in housing have been collapsed to a point where it was certain for poor migrants with families to settle in. In Brixton, West Indians were more likely to buy properties in poor neighbourhoods and simultaneously on a subconscious level, create false perceptions from their white neighbours by making stereotypical assumptions that they are deviant and looking for trouble.

Members from Black, Asian and ethnic minorities move into the inner cities to associate with those who are from the same ethnic backgrounds to achieve a sense of belonging and create an external “family bond” in territories known as enclaves. However, others prefer to mix with those from diverse backgrounds to feel a sense of vibrancy and be part of the multicultural salad bowl. South Asians settle in the London Boroughs of Ealing, particularly Southall, Newham, Redbrigde, Hounslow and Tower Hamlets where Bangladeshi Sylhets habituate in Brick Lane whereas Black Africans, Afro Carribeans and West Indians settle in Brixton, Peckham and other parts of London within the Boroughs of Southwark and Lambeth and for those from Irish backgrounds settle in Kilburn. Some however, relocate to settle in other ethnic diverse places outside London such as West Yorkshire particularly Bradford, Leeds, Birmingham, Cardiff, Liverpool and Greater Manchester. Religion is suggested to play a part in preserving their sense of identity as West Indians are devoted churchgoers and majority of those are Christian shaped in divisions of Pentecostals, Presbyterian Baptists and Roman Catholics as opposed to South Asians who are majority made up of  Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs even though there were two central places of worship in Birmingham (Fulcher & Scott 2007: 221).

It is argued (Fulcher & Scott 2007: 221) that the black race symbolises evil, filth and demonic threat to the white hegemonic society, which can be suggested that the media, mostly influences from America injects a massive dose of negative stereotypes into the veins of the white society blinding our views on the black and brown people rather than our personal views and experiences. There was limited contact made between the black and white communities in Brixton, influenced by an unconscious level of segregation. As for example, black men would attend dance clubs held at the Lacarno Ball in Streatham Hill, but the white women there reject their offers to dance. National policies were set up to prevent black men attending rock and roll festivals unsupervised and it was a similar situation in the USA in the 19th century where states implemented acts that would prevent black people from having the same access to public services as their white counterparts. This was seen as one of the reactions to the new-found freedom experienced by black members since the eradication of slavery and hence, opportunities in jobs and education increased.

Immigrants and racial groups were prone to be victims of racial hostility by the white society especially, those who live in predominated white areas as a result of participating in the “white flight” leaving them experiencing feelings of  vulnerability, alienation and intimidation and those who are infected by the ethnic melting point could lose their ethnic identity. A study conducted in 2005 (Fulcher & Scott 2007: 223) stated that the majority who fully or partially identify themselves as British, although they acknowledge their ethnic origin. However, 22 per cent of black people feel they do not feel British at all. Racial prejudice was also reported in study. 60 per cent of black people and 54 per cent of Asians tolerated verbal abuse. 24 per cent of black people and 18 per cent of Asians experience physical assaults and racial harassment and thus, some of them even contemplating of returning to their home countries also known as the motherland as a result.

Racial minorities and immigrants are often on the receiving end of the resentment for the causes of poverty and unemployment suffered by the members of the white society rather than being admired for their strong work ethic . As a result, found themselves a potential risk of racially motivated victimisation.  White people retaliated against black people in events like the Notting Hill riot in 1958. Racial violence against Asians with Islamic beliefs have exacerbated by the 9/11 and the 7th July London Underground bombings created a plague of moral panic where Muslims are branded as “terrorists” and would be stopped and searched in the London streets and train stations (Fulcher & Scott 2007: 226). It was argued new a form of racism emerged in the 1970s that covered the biological racism of dominance known as xenophobia, prejudice against those who are culturally different (Barker 1981 cited in Fulcher & Scott 2007: 224). Attitudes among members of the British society associate with the British way of life, consisting of team spirit and harmony. Migrants feel they will be spared of cultural hostility if they are willing by a subconscious force to assimilate into the British way of life, resulting them to turn back on any customs, beliefs and values their way of life that associates with their ‘Motherland’.

The murder of Stephen Lawrence in 1993 was one of the prolific racially motivated murders in the UK and was recorded in the MacPherson report as evidence of institutional racism. Institutional racism is defined as mistreatment and denial in providing services to people because of their racial and ethnic backgrounds. It is obvious that institution racism is to blame for academic under achievement in ethnic minorities particularly, those who come from African and Afro – Caribbean origin as they are classified as educationally “inadequate” and  “troublemakers” (Fulcher & Scott 2007: 226). It illustrates that racism is not only seen the public sphere, but is more seen in the private sphere by members of authority who are subconciously fixated with the negative racial stereotypes particularly in schools and in policing.

On the whole, this essay highlights more on the negative issues concerning race, ethnicity racialisation and migration rather than the positives, on the basis of globalisation, which was ignored. It appears to be obvious the unforgettable events of slavery and racial segregation continues to be the main catalyst for persistent feud among the black and white communities although it continues to neutralise overtime. The media exaggerate the negative stereotypes influences on our ways of looking at race and ethnicity rather than influences from personal narratives and experiences shared by members of our adopted external families, friends and members of charitable organisations and think tank policies that aim to tackle and neutralise racial prejudice and discrimination. Race and racialisation has affected migration in various angles particularly, being denied of our human rights, the opportunities to progress from one social hierarchy to another regardless of employment and education. The loss of identity among migrants who felt had no choice to make distressing sacrifices to aid their survival in a foreign environment that is turning against them.

[1]Barker, M. (1981) The New Racism (London: Junction Books).

Cox, O.C (1948) Caste, Class and Race: A Study in Social Dynamics (New York: Doubleday & Cox.)

Drake, S.C and Cayton, H.B (1945) Black Metropolis (New York: Harcourt Brace).

Fulcher, J and Scott, J (2007) Sociology 3ed Oxford University Press, Oxford, Ch12

Hall, S. (1989) ‘New Ethnicities’ Black Film, Black Cinema, ICA Document 7 (London: Institute of Contemporary Arts).

Patterson, S (1963) Dark Strangers (London: Tavistock).

Rex, J. A and Moore, R (1967) Race, Conflict and Community: A Study of Sparkbrook (London: Oxford University Press).

Warner, W.L (1936), ‘American Class and Caste’, American Journal of Sociology, 42.

Zorbaugh, H. (1929), ‘The Gold Coast and the Slum (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).

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June 3, 2013 · 6:58 pm

In what ways is our world becoming more globalised, and what are the consequences?

01_04What is Globalization? The word Globalization sends an image of a globe in our minds displaying the world continents that spins around contrasting the colors of blue and green together by a swipe of a finger, diverts us to a nostalgic memory of a typical geography session where we are obliged to remember every country’s capital city, the language they speak and it’s currency. Globalization is an interdependence of how messages and levels of communication are spread world-wide where we see the well-known clothing brands and electrical manufacturers distributed and used in a space of our living rooms, bedrooms to offices and shops to the slums and compounds of economically unhealthy countries. Technology and mass media communication are to credited for the mastermind of globalization especially through advertisements. Although Globalization is something that bring us together, however there could conflicts in race, culture and even in social hierarchies where the filthy rich could be given first class tickets to have access to the latest technologies and gadgets whereas those are way below the poverty are restricted.

The internet is a great tool for sending emails, browsing social networking sites such as Facebook and MySpace to keep in touch with friends we haven’t seen for a long time, the opportunity to meet people rather than waste time finding them or meet people in places we are not known to. We could also go onto encyclopedic websites such as Wikipedia and search engines such as Google and Ask Jeeves to search for topics that spark our interest and expand our knowledge, which are implemented into political debates and group discussions. Alternatively, provide writers and creative artist inspiration to produce future projects or we purchase, sell and exchange products on websites such as eBay and Amazon, where products are traditionally held at auctions at affordable prices compared to prices in high street stores or already purchased products which existed prior to our first entry into the world or something we remember growing up. We could also use the internet to buy, download or watch media materials, such as music, films, radio and television shows in our spare time or catch up with well-known soap operas and TV sitcoms especially story lines that relate to personal experiences and current problems which creates a form of social bond.

Even though the internet is a crucial aid for improving our lifestyles, especially in the development of today’s children, as they can play games and get in touch with their friends and research relevant topics to help with their homework assignments. The downfall is that the internet could put us at risk for developing obsessions and addictions. Customers who use the internet for buying stuff online and for online banking purposes, could put themselves as targets for deception, identity theft and fraud where people can hack into websites to gain customers personal details such as credit cards and bank statements that contain their account numbers. Since the satellite system now behaves as a “Big Brother” surveillance in storing records of our details such as postcodes and address in a national database. Despite this approach, it provides positive benefits, such as how CCTV is embedded in street lights and retail outlets and other areas of social control to aid company’s security and performance and aids our personal welfare so we could easily walk home alone in high confidence without the fear of criminal victimization.

Some people can use the internet for criminal activity, such as downloading, producing and distributing disturbing materials like images of child abuse and go onto chat – rooms in a way to create relationships with vulnerable victims in a process known as online grooming. Some can use the internet for cyber-bullying to harass their victims by making death threats through text messaging, writing emails and produce websites containing fabricating information and disturbing materials to promote hate campaigns. Physical activities include happy slapping, where people film physical violence and pranks on their mobiles and distribute on internet websites particularly You Tube in order to degrade, humiliate vulnerable victims or sometimes use it as a form of emotional blackmail with intent to dominate their victims. Now since cyber crime has gone out of proportion because of  film footages  reveal an increase of anti social behavior and minor crimes ranging from hitting, harassing people, vandalism to serious crimes where people are being set on fire, sexually assaulted and even murdered. This can cause victims to develop mental and emotional distress, leading them to suffer from low self-esteem issues to psychiatric disorders particularly Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).

Migration is not new to Globalization as it derives back to various historical events of migration, such as  the Great Migration to the United States in the Early 1600s, The Great Famine, The Barbarian Invasion in the Roman Empire, The Holocaust, The World Wars, which saw an increase of migration globally in the aftermath and The Great Depression, which saw a shortage of industrial workers. However, migration is forced through the example of the Trans Atlantic Triangle which saw the slaves abducted and transported from Africa to western societies to work on plantation farms. Migrants come in as a family unit, sub-cultural groups or as a single person in hope to seek economical opportunities with the hope to improve their life chances. Common reasons for migration includes receiving medical treatment, better education opportunities, to belong in a community and as part of exchange student programmes and career packages. The advantage of migration is to learn a new language and assimilate into the cultural norms and values the host country has to offer particularly, to take advantage of the healthcare and medical treatments available, whereas it’s not offered in their home countries. Their accent patterns especially in young children are influenced by the different cultures and their adopted environmental setting, giving a sense of identity and belonging. They will be overwhelmed by the opportunity to be educated in an economically healthy country as education is seen as the key to obtaining basic and materialistic wealth in western societies, whereas in other economically deprived societies, education is seen as a lottery ticket to escape the heavy burdens of living in poor conditions where they are at risk for common illnesses caused by poor sanitation.

The negative side of migration is that people who live in foreign countries for a long time are likely to be experience  “culture shock”. This may cause them to endure feelings of anxiety,alienation, bewilderment and struggle to adapt to the norms and value of their adopted countries. People who emigrate especially on their own could experience social and cultural isolation, homesickness and experience vulnerability, especially those who speak little or no adopted languages especially English as this language is predominately spoken and is seen as a ticket to ameliorate job prospects and patterns of communication. Human trafficking is a common globalized crime where people especially young girls and women are lured or kidnapped from Non -English speaking countries to be sexually exploited and coerced into prostitution through false promises of education and guaranteed permanent stay in economically healthy countries. As a result, they could be victims of rape and thus have their emotional and physical needs denied especially testings for pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases which could be passed onto potential clients. In the terms of the labour market, migrants could be seen as targets for resentment by members of their host country for the causes of unemployment and poverty. Simultaneously, become victims of maltreatment, bullying by their work colleagues due to little understanding of the English culture and underpay their wages which may not cover basic need for survival due to subconcious levels of racism. Those who come from predominately Islamic countries are prone will be targeted for racial profiling, exacerbated by the September 11th terrorist attacks and the 7th July bombings in London.

Clothes are produced from economically developed countries but now the production lines are created in poverty-stricken countries. Clothes are were always  imported from countries to countries especially Britain to stores such as Primark, which sell sophisticated clothing at cheap affordable prices. The downfall is that the majority of clothes are produced from garment factories and the majority of the workers are women. They are paid depending on the numbers of clothes they produced based, patterns of  motivation and fast they can work towards deadlines rather than get paid per hour. Basically, it is commission orientated. Even in some cases, the wages are not enough meet the basics needs for survival where western societies take for granted. The working conditions are sometimes poor and dangerous which could increase the workers chances of being involved fatal accidents and suffer injuries which could impact their physical and mental health in the short and long-term and could affect the company’s overall performance and their personal lives and chances for future employment.

Globalization is a phenomenon which continues to grow and is inevitable and could benefit us in the long run and simultaneously, intensify our current circumstances.  The world is becoming more globalised in many ways particularly, in the area of modern technology and communication developed with the ambition to improve our lives nevertheless, went on to be exploited for criminal and illegal purposes. We need globalization in order to experience, explore and experiment with different cultures, norms and values, to educate and create a social bond.

 

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